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GRADUATE SCHOOL OF NUCLEAR AND ALLIED SCIENCES
COLLEGE OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCES
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA - ATOMIC


SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ABSTRACTS
2008  2013



Compiled by:
E. A. Agyeman & A. P. K. E. Bilson



Graduate School of Nuclear and Allied Sciences, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Atomic. Research Abstracts 2008 - 2013 Vol 1
© 2014

This is a compilation of research work carried out at the Graduate School of Nuclear and Allied Sciences, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Atomic between the period 2008 - 2013


ISSN: 2343 - 6514



























Cover Picture Bust and Symbolic fountain of the Graduate School of Nuclear and Allied Sciences, University of Ghana






The School of Nuclear and Allied Sciences (SNAS), a graduate school, was jointly established by the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission (GAEC) and the University of Ghana (UG) in co-operation with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), in 2006, with the purpose of training more nuclear scientists and engineers to meet the manpower requirements for peaceful use of nuclear energy in Ghana and the whole of Africa. The School was designated as IAEA Regional Centre of Excellence for Professional and Higher Education in Nuclear Science and Technology in September 2009. Again, in October 2011, the School was endorsed as an IAEA Regional Designated Centre for Training in Radiation Protection.

Less than a decade of its existence, the School has developed and mounted 12 nuclear oriented academic programmes under 5 academic departments for the award of M. Phil. and Ph.D. degrees of the University of Ghana and a 5 month IAEA post graduate Education Course (PGEC) in Radiation Protection. The academic department and areas of specialization Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications (Applied Nuclear Physics, Nuclear Earth Science, Nuclear and Radiochemistry, Nuclear and Environmental Protection); Department of Nuclear Safety and Security (Radiation Protection, IAEA Post-Graduate Education Course in Radiation Protection); Department of Nuclear Engineering (Nuclear Engineering, Computational Nuclear Sciences and Engineering, Nuclear Technology Applications in Petroleum and Mining Industries); Department of Nuclear Agriculture and Radiation Processing (Nuclear Agriculture, Radiation Processing), Department of Medical Physics (Medical Physics, Nuclear Science and Technology).

Over 270 M.Phil. students (both Ghanaian and foreign) and 10 Ph.D. students have graduated from various programmes of the School and a total of 60 students (including 54 international students) have successfully completed the Post Graduate Educational Course in Radiation Protection. Current students and alumni have come from Ghana, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, DR Congo, Egypt, Eretria, Ivory Coast, Jamaica, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Tanzania, South Africa, Uganda and Zambia with many more applying to be admitted from other African countries.

The contribution to knowledge in the nuclear and related sector is evident through the numerous theses, technical documents and papers in peer reviewed journals.

In this publication, you will find the abstracts of research projects conducted by past students of the School from 2006 to 2013. We hope that this compilation will serve as a reference point for students, researchers and lecturers all over the world. We are very grateful to the compilers for painstakingly bringing together the abstracts and we look forward to regular updates.

Yaw Serfor-Armah, PhD, FGA
Professor of Chemistry
Dean, School of Nuclear and Allied Sciences,
University of Ghana-Atomic



This publication contains abstracts of Masters and Doctorial theses of students of the
Graduate School of Nuclear and Allied Sciences since 2008. The purpose is to bring in one place and provide an overview of completed MPhil. and PhD theses for the benefit of students, lecturers and researchers in nuclear and related sciences. Prospective students and researchers will particularly find it useful because it will enable them at a glance know what has already been done in their fields of study and also assist them to formulate their own research areas.
Abstracts listed in this publication are original author abstracts. They are arranged by academic departments, and within each department, they are arranged by year of publication, followed by title and author. All theses listed are currently available for reference at their respective departments at the Graduate School of Nuclear and Allied Sciences.

E. A. Agyeman
Senior Librarian
Ghana Atomic Energy Commission








FOREWORD i

FOREWORD……………………………………………………………………….................................i

PREFACE…………………………………………………………………………………………..……………..iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………………………..……..iv

SECTION A DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL PHYSICS……………………………………..…….1

SECTION B DEPARTMENT OF NUCLEAR AGRICULTURE AND RADIATION
PROCESSING…………………………………………………………………………..….28

SECTION C DEPARTMENT OF NUCLEAR ENGINEERING…………………………………92

SECTION D DEPARMENT OF NUCLEAR SAFETY AND SECURITY…………….…….134

SECTION E DEPARTMENT OF NUCLEAR SCIENCES AND APPLICATIONS…..…178

AUTHOR INDEX……………………………………………………….……………………………………288
iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

SECTION A MEDICAL PHYSICS 1

SECTION B NUCLEAR AGRICULTURE AND RADIATION PROCESSING 29
N D NUCLEAR SAFETY AND S 292


SECTION A
DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL PHYSICS


2013
0001 Atmospheric dispersion modeling and radiological safety analysis for a hypothetical accident of Ghana Research Reactor - 1 (GHARR-1)
Lunguya, J. M. XE "Lunguya, J. M."  (M.Phil)

This work presents the environmental impact analysis of some selected radionuclides released from the Ghana Research Reactor- 1 (GHARR-1) after a hypothetical postulated accidents scenario. The source term was identified and generated from an inventory of radioisotopes released during the accident. Atmospheric transport model was then applied to calculate the total effective dose and how it would be distributed to different organs of the human body as a function of distance downwind. All accident scenarios were selected from GHARR-1 Safety Analysis Report. After the source term was identified the MCNPX code was used to perform the core burnup/depletion analysis. The assumption was made that the activities were released to the atmosphere under a horse design basis accident scenario. The gaussian dose calculation method was applied, coded in Hotspot, a Healthy Physics computer code. This served as the computational tool to perform the atmospheric dispersion modeling and was used to calculate radionuclide concentration at downwind location. Based upon predominant meteorological conditions at the site, the adopted strategy was to use site-specific meteorological data and dispersion modeling to analyze the hypothetical release to the environment of radionuclides and evaluate to what extent such a release may have radiological effects on the public. Final data were processed and presented as Total Effective Dose Equivalent as a function of time and distance of deposition. The results indicate that all the values of Effective dose obtained are far below the regulatory limits, making the use of the reactor safe, even in the case of worst accident scenario where all the fission products were released into the atmosphere.

0002 Comparative studies on permanent prostate brachytherapy: pre-plan and real-time transrectal ultrasound guided iodine-125 seed implants at Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital, Ghana
Kalolo, L.T. XE "Kalolo, L.T."  (M.Phil)

This research was carried out to investigate and compare the real-time and pre-plan implant at the Radiotherapy Department of the Korle Bu Teaching Hospital, Ghana. Prowess Panther 4.5 treatment planning system and variseed 7.2 software were used for pre-plan and real-time implant respectively. The study was conducted for eighty three (83) patients treated for prostate cancer through real-time implant brachytherapy between september, 2008 to April, 2013. Thirty one patients (31) patients whose ultrasound images were available were selected for the pre-plan study. The slices of ultrasound images were re-drawn on transparent A-4 sheets and later on scanned, contoured and registered in the treatment planning system (prowess 4.5). After planning, the volume to be implanted, total number of needles, seeds and the total activity of the source were displayed. Comparison was done withe the pre-plan and real-time implant. In both cases the variation was below 5% as recommended in dosimetry. About 30% - 40% of the imported seeds were left un-used due to over-estimation of seeds ordered from the manufacturer (BARD Company-USA). Hence this work (pre-plan) aims to solve this problem. The comparison for dosimetric parameters was assessed for prostate, urethra and rectum as (V 95%, V 100%, V 150%, D90Gy, D90%), (D90Gy, D90%, D30Gy, D30% ) and (V 100%, D30Gy and D30%) respectively and the variation were within the limit of ± 5%. Comparison of dosimetric values for this work were done with other institutions, like Karolinska university hospital, Sweden, The institute of Curie/ hospital Cochin Group Paris-France and European recommendations. The values reported at Korle - Bu teaching hospital (this work) were in good agreement with the international guidelines.

0003 Dose assesment to the bladder and rectum in intracavitary brachytherapy of the cervix using Gafchromic films
Avevor, J. XE "Avevor, J."  (M.Phil)

Clinical complications do result from high doses received by parts of the bladder and rectum during interactary brachytherapy of the cervix. The aim of this studies is to assess the dose delivered to the bladder and rectum using Grafchromic films and compare it with the optimized dose calculated by the Brachy Prowees 4.60 Treatment Planning System (TPS) report for emperical validation and system verification. Fletcher suite applicators were used to perform thirty (30) different clinical insertions on the constructed cervix phantom and result evaluated. The main difference between the doses calculated by TPS and the doses measured by the Grafchromic film for the bladder at the distance of 0.5cm from the egde of the film was16.3% (range -35.33 to +39.37). At a distance of 1.5cm for the bladder, the mean difference was 19.4% (range -49.48 to +30.39). The mean difference between calculated doses and the measured dose for the rectum at the distance of 0.5cm from the edges of the film was 23.1% (range -42.42 to +40.41). At a distance of 1.5cm for the rectum the mean was 22.5% (range -49.45 to +46.48). The TPS calculated maximum dose higher than the measured maximum dose. However, in some cases, the measured doses were found to be higher than the doses calculated by the TPS. This is due to positional inaccuracies of the sources during treatment planning. The data obtained suggested that generally, dose reduction to the rectum was higher than dose reduction to the bladder. It is recommended that in vivo dosimetry should be perform in addition to computation.
0004 Effects of contrast agents on CT numbers and dose distribution in
treatment planning system
Woode, B. XE "Woode, B."  (M.Phil)

Computed tomography (CT) scanners are as an important tool in modern diagnosis and treatment of cancer. During the imaging process contrast agents are introduced to enhance the images. This research was conducted to determine the effect that contrast agents have on CT numbers and their dose distribution in Treatment Planning System. This study was carried out at the Medical Imaging Limited, Ghana and the Planning Unit of the National Center for Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital. a two chamber phantom was constructed to mimic the trunk of a standard adult human being and filled with water such that the larger chamber was devoid of air bubbles. The phantom was scanned with and without iodine based contrast (iopamiro 370). The contrast agent was introduced into the phantom in four different volumes. The CT numbers were then read from the scans with a dicom viewer. The images were loaded into the treatment planning system and the change in dose distribution was noted and recorded. The average CT numbers measured were -0.061 HU for the non contrast scans, 14.62 HU for 121.21ml/m2 volume of contrast agent per Body surface area, 21.66 HU for 181.82 ml/m2, 27.99 HU for 242.42 ml/m2, and 36.06 HU for 303.03 ml/m2. The results for the dose distribution showed no change for the non contrast scans, that is a percentage change in dose of -0.58 % was recorded for 14.62 HU, -0.89 % for 21.66 HU, -l.15 % for 27.99 HU, and finally -1.56% for 36.06 HU. Results from the research indicated a change in CT number with increasing volume of contrast agent and a change in dose distribution with increasing volume of contrast as well as increasing field size and increasing number of beams. The percentage change in dose however has minimal tolerable dosimetric impact on treatment plans.
0005 Effects of electron contamination on output factor measurements of
Cobalt GWGP -80 Teletherapy unit in Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital Accra, Ghana
Frezghi, Y. XE "Frezghi, Y."  (M.Phil)

A dose to any point in a medium can be analyzed into primary and scattered components. The scattered component can be further analyzed into collimator and phantom scatter. The phantom component can be effectively manipulated; thus the effective primary dose at a point is due to the primary dose and those scattered from collimator. Output factors which separate collimator and phantom scatter factors are required in dose calculations. Scatter factors used in these systems are based on reference depths equal to the depth of the maximum absorbed dose dmax on the beam central axis. These factors defined at the depth of maximum absorbed dose are sensitive to electron contamination and are difficult to measure and calculate. Percent Depth Dose and Tissue Mass Ratio which are dependent on Sp (phantom scatter factor) and Sc (collimator scatter factor) are difficult to measure; hence reference data from BJR (British journal of radiologists) supplement 25 are often used in evaluation. Sp and Sc are defined at the reference depth of dmax and actual measurement of these factors at this depth is not reliable as a result of the possible influence of electron contamination. Many suggestions on the influence of electron contamination have been made and approaches to reduce it, including the use of Helium bags, shadow trays, magnetic fields. Though each of these approaches have proved successes, in clinical situations some of the techniques are not the best. As the result with large fields (collimator setting) electron contamination decreases with distance from source hardware as electrons are absorbed and scattered, then EC increases with larger distance due to electrons originating from air as the beam size expands with distance. Petti et al, 1982 carried out calculations and measurement of electron contamination in clinical photon beams and concluded that electron contamination accounts for buildup dose. Duncan et al, 1984, also showed that buildup dose is due to electron contamination and not photon contamination. Therefore this study adopts the use of narrow cylindrical beam coaxial phantom (mini- phantom) for the measurement of the collimator scatter contribution to the dose at a reference depth of treatment of the isocentric SAD (Source to axis distance) setup. In combination with measurements in a full scatter water phantom, the phantom scatter contribution was derived. The aim of this study is to describe the separation of the total scatter correction factor into its component parts so as to accurately measure and deliver the prescribed dose to patient by analyzing the effect of the contaminant electrons on these output factors. Thus the success of this work is very crucial as per clinical standard practices. As a result, normalized output ratios were compared with ESTRO published values and NCR (S and G data). The percentage of variation between the measured and the literature values were about 0.23% for mini- phantom output factor measurement. Collimator exchange effect was measured for water and mini-phantom for different field size and was compared with ESTRO value. This was found to be 1% and 0.44% respectively. Phantom scatter correction factors were calculated for square and rectangular filed sizes; this was compared with ESTRO values, found to be 1% for square and rectangular filed size. Mini-phantom or in-air output factor measurements generally were done for all types of clinical photon beam dosimeters i.e. the small and big cavity specific farmer ionization chambers used in this project work. The measured values checked for chamber cavity and stem effect were found to be 0.2% for all available clinical field size combinations. These results therefore were compared and they were in good agreement with the published values. Therefore, this fabricated mini-phantom can also be used for beam parameter measurement of Co-60 machine. The measurement of head scatter is independent of the orientation of the axis of the cylindrical ion chamber. The results obtained were exactly the same as that of previous literature review (Storchi and Van Gasteren and ESTRO Booklet No: 6). Hence in-house fabricated mini-phantom can also be used for Co-60 beam data parameter measurement. Finally, the purpose of measuring the output factors separately was in order to accurately measure the output factors in non-reference treatment parameter condition specifically in this work using the non-reference field sizes. This leads to accurately deduce the level of production of contaminant electrons due to the photon interaction in the machine head collimator assembly and in phantom or patient surface volume of treatment considered. As a result, in-air electron contamination level was found to be averagely about 0.2% and a total of 2% of scatter factor dose to the output of the telecobalt photon beam from contaminant electrons was resulted. This was found to happen in clinically applied daily treatment planning system used in this external teletherapy machine as 1.2% of the contaminant electrons contribution was from the irradiated phantom volume at a reference depth of measurement. Hence, the effect of the resulting contaminant electrons from the scattered photons in-air and in water phantom for cobalt clinical photon beam generally can be neglected. This is because, its contribution to the treatment delivery setup as in ICRU (International Commission of Radiation units and Measurements) Report 24 recommended patient dose accuracy level is ± 5% with respect to prescribed dose delivery setup, which exactly complies with result 2% of electron contamination, found in this research work.
0006 Low dose rate 137Cs Brachytherapy source calibration with farmer type ionisation chamber and specialised fabricated jig in Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital.
Opare-Asare, K. XE "Opare-Asare, K."  (M.Phil)

An important part of a general quality assurance (QA) program for brachytherapy dosimetry is the source calibration because wide ranges of uncertainties are quoted by manufactures. This research is aimed at calibrating LDR 137 Cs brachytherapy source in the Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital by multiple-distance air kerma measurement technique using a specialized designed jig and a calibrated therapy ionization chamber. Specialized jig was fabricated with source holder positions and ionization chamber positions on the jig. Farmer type ionization chamber of volume 0.6cm3 was used with and without build up cap. The results were validated using well type ionization chamber on channels on 1 and 5 taking into account decay correction. Air Kerma rates were determined at multiple distances between 8cm to 12cm from measured charges recorded by Max 4000 electrometer. The scatter dose relationship described by Ezzell [1992] was used to determine scattered radiation. The analytical method of determining air kerma calibration factor of 137 Cs described by Sharma et.al [2011] was used to determine beam quality correction factor for the 137 Cs. Beam attenuation was determined. Experimental data were compared with manufacturer's quoted source strength for verification. Well type ionization chamber results and experimental results on channel V1 and V5 deviated by 2.39% and 1.58% respectively. Experimental data deviated by 4.73% and 1.24% from theoretical data on channels V1 and V5 respectively. The mean of the experimental data deviated from the theoretical data by ±3.1% and from the well type measurements data by ±1.98%. The well type chamber results compared well with the experimental data. This is an indication that the method used for source calibration is a reliable alternative method of source calibration. The method used in this work has proven to be an efficient way of determining the actual source strength of the LDR brachytherapy 137 Cs source in Korle-Bu Radiotherapy Centre procured over 16 years ago which has not been verified ever since it was accepted for clinical use. It is therefore recommended that the measurement protocol established with the constructed jig together with the therapy level ionization chamber be used to calibrate LDR source at the Radiotherapy Centre at the Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital for routine clinical work.

0007 Modelling radiation doses to critical organs of patients undergoing
intracavitary brachytheraphy treatment at Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital
Owusu-Banahene, J. XE "Owusu-Banahene, J."  (Ph.D)

 The main aim of radiotherapy is to destroy cancerous tissues with ionizing radiation while the other normal parts of the body are saved or spared. Intracavitary brachytherapy is a procedure in which radioactive sources are placed in the body cavities close to or inside the target volume to deliver radiation at short distances. In this mode of treatment, high radiation dose can be delivered to the tumour volume with rapid dose fall-off into the surrounding normal tissues. In brachytherapy, the dosimetry in biological tissues is a complex process. Dosimetric parameters such as the dose to critical organs and the total dose to the reference points as in the case of Manchester system are critical for patients undergoing intracavitary brachytherapy treatment. In this study, the Finite Element Method (FEM) has been utilized to solve Boltzmann Transport Equation (BTE) to determine the distribution of angular photon fluxes at various positions in the cervix of cancer patients and the dose distribution calculated for the organs of interest. The time-dependent linear BTE was used to describe the passage of ionizing radiation taking into account tissue heterogeneities and other scattering phenomena before depositing the absorbed dose in a patient. The simulation was carried out to determine doses to the critical organs, namely the rectum and bladder. Results from the study indicate doses to the rectum and the bladder to be in the range of 10.13-85.67cGy and 21.32-78.81cGy respectively for stage I to stage IV cancer patients. Comparison of the results from the model with data from published articles and dose prescriptions from the treatment planning system of the Radiotherapy Center of the Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital in Ghana for different cancer stages indicate good agreement with standard error of ±20% to ±34%.

0008 Occupational radiation dose of staff and workplace assessment at Service NDes Radioimmunodosages in Benin
Soglo, R. T. XE "Soglo, R. T."  (M.Phil)

Occupational radiation dose of staff handling 125 I and workplace assessment in nuclear medicine unit at Service des Radioimmunodosages (SeRiD) in Benin have been undertaken to determine levels of radiation safety. Firstly, three permanent workers and two students were provided with finger ring thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD) to wear at index finger base of both hands. Ring dosimeters were used for four month in two sequences of two months and were evaluated with HARSHAW 4500. Secondly, three permanent workers and three students were provided with TLD badge to wear at the chest level for skin and deep dose measurement. TLD badges were used for six months in six sequences of one month. The exposed TLDs were evaluated with HARSHAW 6600. Ambient equivalent dose rate (¼Sv/h) was measured using microsieverts model dose rate meter. Sixteen control points closed to the source or situated where staff are exposed to ionizing radiation were chosen. Fixed and removable contamination were surveyed at six and three controlled points respectively. Results from the study showed that permanent workers highest index finger base average equivalent dose was 142.75± 89.54¼Sv/2months, while that of students was 34.69 ± 29.23 µSv/2months. The maximum annual skin dose of Permanent workers represent 0.46% of dose limit (500mSv/yr), while that of the student represent 0.37%of dose limit (150mSv/yr). Average ambient equivalent dose rate from radiation survey was lower than 20¼Sv/h. It was noted that the freezer door plays an inportant role in shielding. The result in waste disposal room confirm the decay in storage of radioactive waste principle. Data on removable and fixed contamination value was below the limits of 0.33 dps/100cm2 and 8.33dps/100cm2 respectively. The study indicated that SeRiD staff are not exposed to ionizing radiation at work in safe working environment.

0009  HYPERLINK "http://inis.iaea.org/search/searchsinglerecord.aspx?recordsFor=SingleRecord&RN=45019890" Validation of head scatter factor for an Elekta Synergy platform linear accelerator Johannes, N.B. XE "Johannes, N.B."  (M.Phil)

 A semi-empirical method has been proposed and developed to model and compute head or collimator scatter factors for 6 and 15 MV photon beams from Elekta Synergy platform linear accelerator at the radiation oncology centre of 'Sweden-Ghana Medical Centre Limited', East Legon Hills in Accra. The proposed model was based on two dimensional Gaussian distribution, whose output was compared to measured head scatter factor data for the linear accelerator obtained during commissioning of the teletherapy machine. The two dimensions Gaussian distribution model used physical specifications and configuration of the head unit (collimator system) of the linear accelerator, which were obtained from the user manual provided by the manufacturer of the linear accelerator. The algorithm for the model was implemented using Matlab software in the Microsoft windows environment. The model was done for both square and rectangular fields, and the output compared with corresponding measured data. The comparisons for the square fields were used to establish an error term in the Gaussian distribution function. The error term was determined by plotting the difference between the output factors from MatLab and the corresponding measured data as function of one side of a square field (equivalent square field). The correlation equation of the curve obtained was chosen as the error term, which was incorporated into the Gaussian distribution function. This was repeated for two photon beam energies (6 and 15 MV). The refined Gaussian distributions were then used to determine head scatter factors for square and rectangular fields. For the rectangular fields, Sterling's proposed formula was used to find equivalent square used to obtain the equivalent square fields found in the error terms of the proposed formula was sed to find equivalent square used to obtain the equivalent square fields found in the error terms of the proposed and developed model. The output of the 2D Gaussian distribution without and with the error term for the square fields at 6 MV photon beam compared to the measured data were less than±3.6% and ±0.43% of the measured values respectively, with mean deviations of ±1.60 % (standard deviation of ±1.13%) and ±0.22% (standard deviation of ±0.17%) respectively. For the rectangular fields the output of the 2D Gaussian distribution without and with the error term were within ±2.12% and ±0.88% of the measured data respectively, with mean deviations of ±1.19 % (standard deviation of ±0.66%) and of ± 0.47% ( standard deviation of ± 0.24%) respectively. From the statistical analysis, the proposed and developed model from 2D Gaussian distribution was found to be more robust and accurate for analytical determination of the head scatter factors.

2012
0010 Assessment of scintigraphic image quality in Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) using jaszczak phantom
Eduful, E. K. XE "Eduful, E. K."  (M.Phil)

The image quality of scintigraphic images has been improved by applying a MatLab algorithm code and five different filters to an acquired image of the data spectrum (Jaszczak) phantom and the FWHM (resolution) values measured using ImageJ software. The average FWHM value recorded for the acquired image and the Matlab enhanced image were 14.246±0.205 mm and 11.609±1.458 mm respectively. The analyses performed on the acquired image showed improvements in its resolution. Combination of the MatLab algorithm code and the TrousWavelet filter gave the best improvement in resolution of the acquired image, with an average FWHM value of 10.261±1.381 mm. This indicates a 27.973% improvement in the FWHM value of the acquired image. The CLAHE filter, Kuwahara filter, Sigma filter Plus and filter rank, improved the resolution of the acquired image by 21.627%, 17.48%, 4.745% and 8.949% respectively. Results from the study indicate that the acquired image was improved in quality by applying the Matlab image enhancement tool and filters. The outcome of this study shows promise in aiding nuclear medicine physicians to make improved diagnostic decisions if applied to clinical cases.

0011 Evaluating the effect of acquisition parameters on image quality in Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) using quadrant bar phantom at korle Bu Teaching Hospital
Shirazu, I. XE "Shirazu, I."  (M.Phil)

The study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of acquisition parameters (matrix size, count density and object collimator distance) on the quality of SPECT images using the Statistical Moment Method. Images were acquired by placing the quadrant bar phantom on flood field uniformity Phantom filled with a 99m Tc solution. The method involved keeping two parameters constant while varying the other parameter by using low energy all purpose (LEAP) collimator after which it was replaced with the LEHR collimator and the process repeated. The experimental results demonstrate that as the matrix size increases from 64x64 to 1024x1024 the image resolution improved by 28% for LEAP collimator and a 26.4% for LEHR collimator, hence more image details is observed. Also, image quality is degraded as the distance between the object and the collimator increased. At 80mm object collimator distance the image quality is worsen by 30.6% from the default setting and improves by 83% from the default setting when the detector is in contact with the object. It was observed that count density has little influence on image quality. Low energy high resolution collimators produce better image quality than low energy all purpose collimators. Matrix size of 512x512, count density of 15 Mcts to 35 Mcts and acquisition time between 15 to 25 minutes is recommended for good quality images while keeping the detector close contact to the object. From the study, in order to achieve better resolution in gamma camera imaging, matrix size should be as high as possible, object collimator distance should be as low as possible and count density should be high.

0012 Functional fitting of Monte Carlo output parameters for the nucletron pulsed dose rate brachytherapy source
Pokoo  Aikins, M. XE "Pokoo  Aikins, M."  (M.Phil)

The study aims to improve the implementation of the AAPM task group 43 (TG  43) protocol, which calls for significant modifications in the way dose is calculated for 192 Ir pulse dose rate (PDR) sources. PDR brachytherapy is a highly extended practice in clinical brachytherapy today. Brachytherapy treatment is critical, and requires quality dose rate distribution around the PDR source in clinical use. The TG  43 protocol presents dose calculations at points defined by the radial distance, r from the active source centre. Values have been tabulated for the radial dose function, the anisotropy function and the anisotropy factor. Monte Carlo codes have been reliable tools that allow for actual dose calculation and distribution, reducing uncertainties in the brachytherapy treatment planning system (TPS). This study aims at fitting functions for the Monte Carlo (MC) output parameters generated by Lliso et al, by representing the MC dosimetric quantities as TG  43 modified parameters in the quest to develop a functional form which will reduce the number of independent variables. With the radial and anisotropy dose functions hybridized into a single function, Matlab fitting tool was used to produce the functional fit of the MC output parameters. With the help of the MS excel spread sheet, the absolute dose rate per unit air kerma strength was obtained from the functional fit. Taking the work of Lliso et al as a benchmark, the work showed that the results in this study compare favourably with the data form Lliso et al. The average discrepancies in the dose rate per unit air kerma strength (in cGyh 1U 1) obtained in this study were all found to be less than 1%, within the TG  43 recommended statistical uncertainty limit d" 2%. The functional fits are expected to facilitate implementation of the TG  43 protocol, improving upon the problem of interpolation and extrapolation in the TPS.

0013 Quantitative Analysis of Bone Scintigrams at the Korle Bu Teaching Hospital
Huguette, E.Y.Y. XE "Huguette, E.Y.Y."  (M.Phil)

Qualitative method of diagnosis has been the traditional means of diagnosing bone tumours at the Nuclear Medicine Department of the Korle Bu Teaching Hospital over the years. Although this method is commendable, a more accurate diagnostic means is the quantitative approach. Study on ninety five patients undergoing bone scans has been performed quantitatively using image J. The patients were administered with activity ranging from 15 to 30 mCi depending on their weights, and were then scanned with an installed e.Cam SPECT system. A 256 x 1024 matrix size was used in acquiring the bone scans. Quantitative analyses performed with the image J, revealed that uptake levels in all selected body parts were higher for metastatic tumours compared to nonmetastatic tumours. The average normalised uptake in the recorded metastatic cases was 1.37332 cts/mm2/mCi and the corresponding uptake in the non metastatic cases was 0.85230 cts/mm2/mCi. The relative higher uptake in metastatic tumours is attributed to high osteoblastic activity and blood flow in metastatic cases compared to non metastatic cases. Quantitative assessment of bone scintigrams is recommended for its high accuracy and quicker means of diagnosing.

0014 Rectal dose estimation for cervical cancer patients at the radiotherapy department of Komfo Anokye teaching hospital, using thermoluminescent dosimeters
Ahadzie, C.  XE "Ahadzie, C." (M.Phil)

The research was aimed at evaluating the rectal dose of cervical cancer patients undergoing radiation therapy at Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi. This was done by using TLD, anthropomorphic phantom and a cohort of patients selected on consent. TLD chips of dimension 0.125x0.125x0.35mm were placed on each patient and external treatment was planned to deliver 200 cGy of radiation to each patient as prescribed by the Radiation Oncologist. The result shows a 3.39 percentage difference between the predicted dose by the TPS and that measured by the TLD. This percentage difference is below the limit of 5 percent set by Hanson et al. Rectal dose was evaluated using anthromorphic phantom and a cohort of patients. The pelvic section of the phantom was located; TLD chips inserted into the plugs at the positions of the rectal volume for each of the 8 sections of the anthropomorphic phantom and exposure of 200 cGy of radiation for 25 fractions of external beam. The dose was measured as 213.28 cGy and was used to calculate the biological effective dose (BED). The BED was added to the rectal dose from intracavitary brachytherapy to get the total rectal dose (TRD) for each patient. The least rectal dose from the patient studied is 22.123Gy which is far below the TD5/5 and TD 50/5 for the volumes of 1/3, 2/3 and 3/3. Emami et al. gave a threshold doses of 85Gy for 1/3 volume, 70 Gy for 2/3 and 60 Gy for 3/3 volume. The highest rectal dose was 63.76 Gy comparing to the TD5/5 (Gy) values shows as that the measured rectal dose is on the high size. Emami et al. gave for 1/3 volume 61.38 Gy, 2/3 volume 60.50 Gy and 60 Gy for 3/3. Exceeding TD5/5 means that there is 5 percent probability of having complication such as severe proctitis, necrosis or fistula. For TD50/5, Emami et al. gave 81.38 Gy for partial volume of 1/3, 80.50 Gy for 2/3 volume and 80 Gy for 3/3 volume. The highest rectal dose recorded is 63.78 Gy which is far below threshold by Emami et al. (1991).

0015 Temperature distribution in brain tissues of patients undergoing Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) examination
Dery, B. T. XE "Dery, B. T."  (M.Phil)

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scanners have become important tools in modern day health care. During the imaging process, total radiofrequency power is transferred from the RF coil resulting in increase in temperature in the imaging subject. Currently, reliable and validated means to predict RF heating is unavailable. This research was conducted to determined the temperature changes in the human brain during MRI examinations and a numerical model developed to predict the temperature distributions in the brain tissues of patients undergoing MRI examination. This study was carried out at the MRI Units of the Diagnostic Centre Limited, East Legon and the 37 Military Hospital both located in Accra, Ghana. One hundred and twenty six (126) patients undergoing MRI imaging of the brain were investigated. Data collected include pre and post scan tympanic temperature and specific absorption rates (SAR). A modified Pennes' bio heat equation was solved using the finite difference method (FDM) and MATLAB programming language used to compute the temperature rise in the brain due to electromagnetic exposure. The average pre and post scan tympanic temperatures measured for the 37 Military hospital were 36.5 ± 0.1 degrees C and 37.0 ± 0.1degrees C respectively with the average change in temperatures of 0.5 ± 0.1 degrees C for 30.68 minutes average scan duration and an average SAR value of 1.25 W/kg, while the Diagnostic Centre Limited measured an average pre and post scan tympanic temperatures of36.4± 0.1 degrees C and 36.8 ± 0.1 degrees C respectively with the average change in temperaturesof 0.4 ± 0.1 degrees C for 41.58 minutes average scan duration and an average SAR value of 0.1 W/kg. Results from the numerical model showed an average change in temperature of 0.03 degrees C, 0.04 degrees C, 0.07 degrees C and 0.08 degrees C for SAR values of 0.1 W/kg, 0.4 W/kg, 1.4 W/kg and 1.6 W/kg respectively. Results for the experimental values and numerical simulation show that the rise in tympanic temperature and SAR values were within guidelines level of 1 degrees C recommended by the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).

2011

0016 Clinical implication of the collimator exchange in external beam
radiotherapy
Nyamadi, M. XE "Nyamadi, M."  (M.Phil)

The use of equivalent squares for the calculation of dose or treatment time is of great value in the field of radiotherapy as it provides the link in obtaining output factors and depth dose data for rectangular, irregular and circular radiation fields. Two models are currently used in the calculation of equivalent square for dose distribution; published data from BJR  25 and E=2XY/X+Y (Sterling's model), where E is defined as the equivalent square field size and X, Y are the radiation field dimensions. The Sterling's model is mostly employed for equivalent square calculations because of its simplicity and its good agreement with published data. This model however, deviates significantly from the published data on Equivalent Square for rectangular fields when the elongitivity ratio of the rectangular radiation field coordinated exceeds two (2). This deviation is a manifestation of the collimator exchange effect (CEE), which is very pronounced in the determination of head scatter factors (SC) for rectangular fields. Since modern treatment time calculation formalism advocated the separation of the total output factors (SCP) into head scatter (SC) and phantom scatter (Sp) factors, there was therefore the need for modification in the equivalent square model proposed by Sterling in order to account for any effect of the collimator exchange phenomenon during computation of radiation dose or treatment time. Thus, this change in the equivalent square formula was proposed as E=(1+A)XY/(AX+Y) by Vadesh et al, where A known as collimator weighting factor is an empirically determined constant whose value depicts the magnitude of the exchange effect. In determining A,, Sc for square and rectangular field were measured and the equivalent fields were interpolated from the measured SCs. A graph of rectangular field dimensions (X, Y) and Eave (averaged E for rectangular fields before and after collimator interchange) was used to determine the value of A as  0.5255. The value of A tested on the total output factors (SC.P) established that, Sterling's formula overestimates SC.P by 0.8% which thus, reflected in underestimation of dose or treatment time by the same margin. The clinical effect was however to be insignificant considering the acceptable ±5% uncertainty in the total delivered dose within patients in the control of tumour in radiotherapy. With the many studies made in the field of radiotherapy mostly with the sole purpose of increasing accuracy in dose delivery by possibly eliminating or reducing all forms of errors, this study comes to support the call for a change in the calculation of equivalent square field for rectangular fields. In terms of quality control in equivalent square field calculations for rectangular fields, published data from the British Journal of Radiology Supplement 25 (BJR25) proved its superiority over Sterling's equation as it recorded 2.16 improvement in accuracy. The use of BJR 25 is therefore recommended for equivalent square fields' calculations in dose or treatment time determination.

0017 Fitting and benchmarking of Monte Carlo output parameters for iridium 192 high dose rate brachytherapy source
Acquah, F.G. XE "Acquah, F.G." (M.Phil)

Brachytherapy, the use of radioactive sources for the treatment of tumours is an important tool in radiation oncology. Accurate calculations of dose delivered to malignant and normal tissues are the main responsibility of the Medical Physics staff. With the use of Treatment Planning System (TPS) computers now becoming a standard practice in the Radiation Oncology Departments, Independent calculations to certify the results of these commercial TPSs are important part of a good quality management system for brachytherapy implants. There are inherent errors in the dose distributions produced by these TPSs due to its failure to account for heterogeneity in the calculation algorithms and Monte Carlo (MC) method seems to be the panacea for these corrections. In this study, a fit functional form using MC output parameters was performed to reduce dose calculation uncertainty using the Matlab software curve fitting applications. This includes the modification of the AAPM TG 43 parameters to accommodate the new developments for a rapid brachytherapy dose rate calculation. Analytical computations were performed to hybridize the anisotropy function, F(r,¸) and radial dose function, g(r) into a single new function f(r,¸) for the Nucletron microSelectron High Dose Rate 'new or v2' (mHDRv2)192Ir brachytherapy source. In order to minimize computation time and to improve the accuracy of manual calculations, the dosimetry function f(r,¸) used fewer parameters and formulas for the fit. Using MC outputs as the standard, the percentage errors for the fits were calculated and used to evaluate the average and maximum uncertainties. Dose rate deviation between the MC data and fit were also quantified as errors(E), which showed minimal values. These results showed that the dosimetry parameters from this study as compared to those of MC outputs parameters were in good agreement and better than the results obtained from literature. The work confirms a lot of promise in building robust models to directly represent outputs from contemporary brachytherapy dosimetry calculations to make clinical implementation practicable.

0018 Management of radiation dose to paediatric patients undergoing CT examination at Korle bu Teaching Hospital, Accra Ghana
Gedel, A.M. XE "Gedel, A.M."  (M.Phil)

In this work management of paediatric patients doses for Computed
Tomography examinations have been studied at Korle Bu Teaching Hospital. The assessment of the management system involved: evaluation of the frequency of examinations, comparison of techniques factors used for adult and children; estimation of CTDIw, CTDIvol, DLP and effective dose; evaluation of quality assurance and quality control programmes to optimise paediatric patient doses. The frequency of CT examinations for paediatric patients accounted for 1300 out 5200 examinations (25%) of the total examinations recorded for the year 2008 which is five times that of the East European countries, indicating an overuse of CT examinations for children not taking into account paediatric patient anatomy and the section of the body being scanned. Adult CT exposure parameters such as the KV, mAs, scan length, pitch, and collimation values were being used in paediatric CT examination. Effective dose estimated for children were higher than that for adults by factors 5.1, 1.8, 3.1 and 3.9 more for head, chest, abdomen and pelvis examinations respectively. From the questionnaire administered and dosimetry results there was no established justification policy, procedures and referral criteria for CT examination requests for children. There was no Quality Assurance Committee to see to the implementation of dose management system dedicated to paediatrics patients. There was the need for the Hospital Authorities to formulate policies in the training of CT equipment operators, radiographers and radiographers and radiologist in modern CT technology as well as in the selection of appropriate parameters tailored to individual patient size that can achieve desirable diagnostic image quality at low doses.

0019 Three dimensional implementation of anisotropy corrected fast fourier transform dose calculation around brachytherap y seeds
Kyeremeh, P. O. XE "Kyeremeh, P. O."  (M.Phil)

Current available brachytherapy dose computation algorithms ignore heterogeneities such as tissue air interfaces, shielded gynaecological colpostats, and tissue composition variations in source implants despite dose computation errors as large as 40%. A convolution kernel, which takes into consideration anisotropy of the dose distribution around a brachytherapy source, and to compute dose in the presence of tissue and applicator heterogeneities, has been established. Resulting from the convolution kernel are functions with polynomial and exponential terms. the solution to the convolution integral was represented by the Fast Fourier transform. The Fast Fourier transform has shown enough potency in accounting for errors due to these heterogeneities and the versatility of this Fast Fourier transform is evident from its capability of switching in between fields. Thus successful procedures in external beam could be adopted in brachytherapy to a yield similar effect. A dose deposition kernel was developed for a 64x64x64 matrix size with wrap around ordering and convoluted with the distribution of the sources in 3D. With MatLab's inverse Fast Fourier transform, dose rate distribution for a given array of interstitial sources, typical of brachytherapy was calculated. The shape of the dose rate distribution peaks appeared comparable with the output expected from computerized treatment planning systems for brachytherapy. Subsequently, the study confirmed the speed and accuracy of dose computation using the FFT convolution as well juxtaposed. Although, dose rate peaks from both the FFT convolution and the TPS(TG43) did not compare quantitatively, which was mainly due to the TPS(TG43) initiation computations from the origin (0,0,0) unlike the FFT convolution which uses sampling points; N=1,2,3..., there is a strong basis for establishing parity since the dose rate peaks compared qualitatively. With both modes compared, the discrepancies in the dose rates ranged between 3.6% to 8.2%, showing a general trend of decreasing error with distance. With further development, incorporating techniques such as Monte Carlo Simulations, an improved and more practical model will be obtained while maintaining the computational time efficiency of the FFT. This forms the basis for studying tumour growth and response to radiation in order to establish rigorous mathematical models for predicting tumour control and the aftermath upshots of radiotherapy.

2010
0020 Evaluation of the sensitivity of normal tissue complication probability against errors in brachytherapy dose distributions
Doughan, F. XE "Doughan, F."  (M.Phil)

The use of treatment computers has now become a standard practice in radiation therapy departments. These planning systems depend on dose calculation algorithms which were written based on the physics of interaction of radiation with matter. There are inherent errors in the dose distributions produced by these treatment planning systems (TPS) due to multiplicity of factors, prominent among them being heterogeneities in the medium. If normal tissue complication probabilities (NTCPs) are derived from these dose distributions, the predictions of biological effects of radiation might be defective. The work seeks to estimate the NTCP of the bladder for intracavitary brachytherapy for uterine cervical cancer from brachytherapy dose distributions of a TPS and the Monte Carlo simulations (MC) were generated based on the same configuration of Ir 192 sources with the MC accounting for the heterogeneities that were ignored by the TPS. Using the MC as the standard, the errors within the dose distributions of the TPS were estimated and the sensitivity of the NTCPs against these errors evaluated. The sensitivity of the NTCP against the errors in the dose distribution ranged from 3.90x10 7 Gy 1 to 2.32x10 2 Gy 1, varying with position of the bladder and magnitude of the absorbed dose. It was also confirmed that the TPS overestimated doses due to its inability to correct the effects of shields which might lead to underdosing of patients which could cause repopulation of cancerous cells and tumour recurrence.

0021 Safety assessment of the Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) facility at the 37 Military Hospital
Mintah, R.O. XE "Mintah, R.O."  (M.Phil)

Safety assessment of the operation of the Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) system at 37 Military Hospital was done. Protocols were developed to assess the radiological health and safety impact of some selected MR imaging procedures on patients, staff and the general public. The parameters considered to be assessed were; specific absorption rate (SAR); temperature rise in the body, variation of the magnetic field gradients, RF energy used, sound pressure level and the potential for missile effects. The Smart brain and Routine lumbar Spine examination cards specific to brain and lumbar spine anatomy techniques were used. For brain examinations the T1 W SE sagittal PH, and the T1 W SE Tra PH protocols gave the highest SAR values with a mean value 1.6 W/kg for 3 minutes. For the lumbar spine examinations, the T1 W TSE axial protocols exposed patients to the highest consistent SAR value of 2.8 W /kg. The T2W TSE axial protocol gave the highest SAR value of 3.8 W/kg with a mean value of 3.1 W/kg with the highest exposure time of 4 minutes with a mean of 2.5 minutes. These SAR values were within the limits recommended by the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA). To optimize patient, staff and public safety, local guidelines for safety assessment were developed which include: in house screening with a metal detector, filling in the screening form and ensuring that safety requirements are met before entering the MR room. The choice of protocols that minimize SAR values and strict compliance to safety protocols developed at the MRI facility therefore should be followed and continuously updated to achieve maximum safety for staff, patient and the general public in and around an MRI facility.

2006
0022 Acceptance testing of Siemens e.cam SPECT system at the Korle
BuTeaching Hospital
Sosu, K. E.  XE "Sosu, K. E." (M.Phil)

Acceptance testing has been performed on the Siemens e.cam Signature Series (Single Head) Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) system; the first of its kind, at the Nuclear Medicine Department, Korle Bu Teaching Hospital, Accra. The various tests were performed according to NEMA NU 1 (2001) specifications as far as possible. The most important parameters that characterized the performance of the camera, gantry system, patient bed, collimators, computer system and fundamental software were evaluated based on visual inspection techniques. Various measuring instruments, different kinds of phantoms, point and flood sources containing 99m Tc were also used for quantitative studies. Tests performed were divided into Physical inspection, intrinsic measurements (without collimator), extrinsic measurements (with collimator) and Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) system measurement. Some results obtained were better than factory specifications, others were within specifications. Other results obtained from this study which did not have factory specifications for comparison can serve as baseline for future measurements and quality control. Although not all the tests originally planned for could be done due to the non availability of certain phantoms and radionuclide, it had been possible to perform sufficient and relevant tests to ensure that the system had no serious problems and that it can be used for clinical nuclear medicine imaging.

0023 Optimisation of patient protection using rare earth screens in diagnostic imaging procedures
Inkoom, S. XE "Inkoom, S."  (M.Phil)

The optimisation of patient protection was studied using conventional and rare earth screen film combination systems of speed 200 and 400 respectively. The entrance surface dose (ESD) for the two screen film systems was determined for patients undergoing three common diagnostic procedures (chest PA, lumbar spine (AP and LAT) and pelvis). The ESD was the optimising parameter and its trade off being image quality assessment. The determination of the ESD included backscatter factors taken from the National Radiological Board of UK. The estimated ESDs were compared with the reference levels set by Community of European Commission (CEC). Quality control tests performed on the Xray machine showed that all key dose related parameters measured were within compliance levels. For chest PA, ESD estimates were lower than the CEC reference levels whilst those of lumbar spine (AP and LAT) and pelvis AP were higher. There was a narrower spread of doses for most examinations and significant reduction of doses obtained when the rare earth screen film combination of speed 400 was compared to the conventional screen film of speed 200. By using a fast screen of speed 400, dose reduction of 33% for chest, 17% for lumbar spine (AP and LAT) and 28% for pelvis examinations were achieved. From the observations made from the study, corrective actions required include; in house quality control of equipment parameters that affect patient dose and image quality such as: kVp accuracy and consistency, mAs accuracy and consistency, optimal film processing conditions, regular film reject analysis to detect and minimise the root causes and contributory factors to poor image quality and periodic training of staff on dose reduction techniques. The use of fast rare earth screens and appropriate choice of radiographic technique in radiology departments are therefore recommended in order to achieve optimisation goals of patient protection.

0024 SPECT bone scintigraphy with technetium 99m methylene
diphosphonate for diagnosis of primary and metastatic tumours
Hasford, F. XE "Hasford, F."  (M.Phil)

Significant contributions have been made by a number of research scientists in the area of bone scintigraphy. The use of radioisotopes in diagnosing primary and metastatic bone tumours is highly recommended due to its high sensitivity, specificity and accuracy. Clinical studies of ten patients are considered as a means of diagnosing bone tumours with the use of Technetium Methylene Diphosphonate (Tc 99m MDP). Research has shown that one of the most common sites of cancer spread in the human body is bone, however, bone tumours with their origin in the cells of bone itself are not prevalent. Most diagnosed bone tumours at a number of hospitals in Ghana are those that have spread to bone from other parts of the body such as the breast, prostate, and cervix. A critical look at bone tumours and bone imaging radioactive agents is made. A literature survey of the bone seeking radiopharmaceuticals reveals Tc99m MDP as the agent of choice when imaging bone. The principle under which gamma camera scintigraphic system operates during imaging is outlined. Planar sensitivity and linear resolution tests were performed on the E.CAM SPECT system at the Nuclear Medicine Department of the Korle Bu Teaching Hospital, Accra, and results obtained were found to be consistent with manufacturer's specification. Excellent images obtained with this newly installed scanner are presented, and the medical reports on them discussed. Whole body scans performed on all ten patients provide essential information about the sites of bone lesions and their prognosis by showing the sequential changes in tracer uptake. Qualitative analyses are done on all cases and lesions are classed either as primary or metastatic in nature.
SECTION B
DEPARTMENT OF NUCLEAR AGRICULTURE AND RADIATION PROCESSING

2013
0025 Anatomical, germination and in vitro studies on shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) seed
Iddrisu, A. XE "Iddrisu, A."  (M.Phil)

In vitro and in vivo germination and regeneration studies were conducted on the development of vitellaria paradoxa seedlings as an initial effort towards its domestication. However, to achieve this objective, the morphology and anatomy of the seeds were first studied because they influence germination. Although a smooth, brown coast enclosed a V. paradoxa seed, it did not impose dormancy on the embroyo. Transverse and longitudinal sections through the seed showed that the embrayo is surrounded by latex and fat-containing tissues which made its identification difficult. Thus, the embrayo was identified by immersing transversely cut seeds in 1.0 % tetrazolium chloride (TTC) solution for 24 hours which stained it red. When V. paradoxa seeds of similar size were sown on nursery beds, the resulting seedlings developed through seven stages namely sprouting, pseudoradicle elongation, bulging, appearance of the shoot on the pseudoradicle, shoot elongation, emergence and seedling establishment. The pseudoradicle is the fused petioles of the two cotyledons and a transverse section through it revealed an outer sheath and lactiferous vessels surrounding a central hollow tube. Longitudinal section also show the lactiferous vessels surrounding the central hallow tube in which the plumule moves through until it reaches the bulge of the pseudoradicle where it develops into a rudimentary shoot. The rudimentary shoot then pseudoradicle and grows upwards. Classifying seeds into three groups based on size significantly affected days to germination and the morphology of the resulting seedlings. Large seeds germinated within one week after sowing with vigorous growth compared to small and medium seeds. Although the seedcoat of V. paradoxa never imposed dormancy, deshelling (removal of the seedcoat) significantly led to early germination and synchronous seedling emergence compared to those for intact seeds (control). In vitro culture of intact and deshelled seeds on Muarashige and Skoog (1962) basal salts modified with 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) produced no plantlets although 80% of the deshelled seeds developed long pseudoradicles on a medium supplemented with lower concerntration of BAP (1.0 or 2.0 mg/1). Similarly, the culture of TTC identified embrayonic axes did not produced plantlets, but rather significantly long pseudoradicles development. Contrastingly, in vitro culture of excised rudimentary shoots on the same MS medium modified with BAP and naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) produced plantlets with distinct shoots and leaves. Significant reduction days to emergence of seedlings from deshelled seeds and successful in vitro plantlet development using rudimentary shoot explants will enhence nursery establishment of this economically important tree species for domestication and reafforestation programmes in sub-Saharan Africa.

0026  HYPERLINK "http://inis.iaea.org/search/searchsinglerecord.aspx?recordsFor=SingleRecord&RN=45022686" Assessment of changes in the aroma and sensory profile of dawadawa due to modification in fermentation conditions
Agyei-Boateng, R. XE "Agyei-Boateng, R."  (M.Phil)

Dawadawa is the most popular traditional condiment in West Africa and is produced by the fermentation of African locust bean seeds. Though the alkaline fermentation results in the production of a tasty condiment, it has a strong ammoniacal odour which some consumers find unattractive and offensive. This work was carried out to develop procedures for reducing the pungent odour of dawadawa in order to increase its popularity and market value especially amongst non-traditional users. Various treatments were applied to the fermenting locust bean seeds 15 hours into the fermentation which lasted for a total of 96 hours. Some treatments were also tested on the beans after fermentation. Treatments which were applied during fementation were fementation under conditions of limited oxygen, low temperature fermentation, irradiation by gamma radiation and steaming. Post-fermentation treatments were partial frying and roasting after fermentation. Samples were taken during fermentation and analyzed for Bacillus count on Nutrient Agar, pH, percentage titratable acidity, moisture content by the oven dry method, crude protein content by the kjeldhal method and texture by the texture analyzer. The final product was analyzed for aroma profile by GC-MS analysis using the Dynamic Headspace Sampling (DHS) method and also by descriptive sensory analysis by a semi-trained panel. Application of all the treatments applied during fermentation resulted in a ten to a hundredfold lower Bacillus counts compared to the control sample at various stages of fermentation. The reduction in the Bacillus activities resulted in a lower rise in pH giving final pH values of 6.8 to 7.53 compared to 8.37 in the control. The rise in pH was due to the proteolytic activity of the Bacillus species which break down the proteins into peptides and amino acids and subsequently utilize the amino acids to produce ammonia leading to the rise in pH. All the samples recorded a simultaneous increase in titratable acidity ranging from 0.006% to 0.037% in the control sample. The moisture content for all samples ranged from 54 to 73% with steaming for 10 minutes recording the highest value due to pick up of moisture during steaming. The protein content of all the samples increased during fermentation with final values which ranged between 30.42 to 37.64%. The texture of all the locust bean cotyledons softened during fermentation and the lowest value of hardness 15 was recorded for the limited oxygen sample and the highest value of 152 for the low temperature fermentation. The results of the instrumental textural analysis were supported by the assessment of the texture by the sensory panel which found the control sample to have the softest and smoothest texture due to the greater degree of fermentation of the control sample and which also results in the more pronounced ammoniacal odour. In the description sensory analysis, the panel assessed higher intensities of the descriptors which were considered undesirable/objectionable in the control sample than in the treated sample. These descriptors were stink fish (momone), Koobi (salted/fermented tilapia) and sweaty sock. The more neutral/tolerant odour notes of rancid oil, fermented cocoa beans, smoked fish and palm kernel oil were higher in the treated sample. The aroma profile of dawadawa was affected by application of the treatments. Forty-nine aroma compounds in total were isolated form the differently treated dawadawa samples. They included mostly esters of acetic, butanoic and propanoic acids, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, furans, sulfur compounds, pyrazines and a pyrrole. In spite of the known pungent smell of dawadawa, most of the aroma compounds identified were esters which are known for their fruity, pleasant odours. However, about 12 of aroma compounds identified such as the sulfur compounds-dimetyhl disulfide and dimethyl trisulfide are reported to have strong pungent odours whilst 2,3-benzohyrrole is known to exhibit the charateristic odour of faeces. The levels of all but eight (2-Methlpropyl acetate; 2- Pentylfuran; 1-Pentanol; 2,6-dimenthlpyrazine; 2,3,5- Trimethlpyrazine; Phenylethanal; Methyl phenylacetate and Benzyl alcohol) of the aroma compounds were either not identified in the control sample or significantly different ( Pd"0.05) in the control compared to the treated samples. Aroma compounds known to have low odour thresholds such as 2-methylfuran; 2-metylfuran, dimethl trisulfide, 2,6-dimethlpyrazine, 2,3,5-trimethlpyrazine and 2,3-benzopyrrole were all at significantly different levels in al the samples they occurred. Generally the odour compunds with pungent and objectionable odours were present at higher levels in the control than in the treated samples. This work has shown that the objectionable/undesirable odour in dawadawa can be reducesd by applying the methods investigated. The most practical effective methods which can be applied by SMEs to reduce the atypical odour of dawadawa is to carry out the fementation in an enclosed chamber with a predetermined oxygen concentration or at a low temperature of 15°C which can be obtained by strong air-conditioning.

0027 Characterization of yellow -, red-, and purple- kernel maize (zea mays L.) accessions in Ghana
Ansah, G. XE "Ansah, G."  (M.Phil)

Twenty yellow-, red-, and purple-kernel maize accessions were collected from three regions in Ghana for the study. The objectives were to characterize the yellow-, red- and purple-kernel maize accessions in Ghana using phenotypic traits in order to determine their identity, using molecular traits for confirmation of their identity and to determine the presence of the opaque-2 gene and ²-carotene content of the grains as a way of assessing nutritional quality. A replicated field experiment was conducted to evaluate and characterize the accessions based on 16 quantitative and eleven qualitative traits. The same accessions were characterized based on 16 SSR markers. Variability in ²-carotene content was determined by HPLC while presence of opaque 2-gene was determined by a light box. The results revealed that accessions GH4055 and GH4863 are extra early maturing and therefore can be very useful for urban farmers producing fresh maize and for cultivation in the coastal savanna ecological zone. However, they produce smaller cobs (Cob weight = 58.24g) as compared to other accessions. Significant variability in morphological traits was observed among the accessions with cob weight, number of kernels per row, plant height and 1000 seed weight having coefficient of variation of 42.7544, 20.5828, 11.4634, 13.0634 and 26.76 respectively. Few traits contributed to the variations observed as revealed by the principal components analysis and these include days to 50% anthesis, days to 50% of leaf senescence, plant height and cob weight. A dendrogram generated from morphological traits clustered the accessions based on kernel colour, physical structure of the plant and geographical location. Two duplicates were identified among the accessions and widest genetic distance was observe between NYRI and GH4055. Strong correlation exist between most of the morphological traits measured (r= 0.9193) but negative correlation was observed between most important yield parameters and number of row per cob. Accession NYRI showed promise in terms of yield (1000 seed weight =281 g) as well as high carotenoid (4.7895 µg/ g) and ²-carotene content (0.8507 µg/ g) and therefore can be very useful in future breeding programmes. Population genetic analysis shows that the accession bear close resemblance to each other with high Nei's genetic identity coefficient 0.9587 and 0.9020 between accessions from Northern and Eastern Region and Northern and Greater Accra region respectively with short genetic distances and this is confirmed by the high outcrossing rate (0.6642) and gene flow (0.7387) among the populations and the high heterozygosity (0.4023). A dendrogram generated by SSR markers revealed that the accessions are separate entries with no duplications. Significant variations were found in the ²-carotene of the accession. Accession DYF had the highest carotenoid and ²-carotene concentrations of 12.0327 and 2.0313 respectively. No significant correlation was observed between kernel colour and ²-carotene content. Generally the amount of ²-carotene increased with increasing carotenoid content but this is not always the case as few exceptions may be found as revealed by the experiment. None of the accessions contained the opaque-2 gene and therefore did not fit the description of quality protein maize. It is recommended that accession DYF had the highest carotenoid and ²-carotene concentrations. The accession also performed well in various yield parameters and therefore can be useful in fresh maize market as well as food for infants and accession GH4055 and GH4863 are extra early maturing and can be useful for cultivation in the coastal savanna ecological zone and for minor season cropping in the forest and forest savanna transitional zones. Information presented may useful to the breeder, the farmer and the consumer.

0028 Development and preservation of a cocktail beverage produced from carrot (Daucus carrota), pineapple (Ananas comosus) and mango (Mangifera indoca L,)
Boateng, A. A. XE "Boateng, A. A."  (M.Phil)

Carrot is known to have the potential of providing vital nutrition as well as health and well-being to consumers. In this study, carrot juice was envisaged as a good vehicle for spreading its nutraceutical benefits. The study was then designed in two parts: (a) Survey to establish the beverage consumption pattern in the Anyaa-Sowutuom District in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana and (b) Carrot juice formulation and optimisation. The survey was conducted by administering a questionnaire to volunteer adult consumers. To develop an acceptable carrot juice beverage, pineapple juice and mango juice were included as components to improve taste and flavour respectively. A constrained, simplex centroid mixture design for three components was employed to optimise the proportions of the components in the final product based on sensory attributes. Chemical analyses as well as shelf stability studies were conducted for the optimised beverage preserved by chemicals and gamma radiation. Data obtained from the survey revealed that juices were very popular among consumers. The choice of a particular beverage was dependent on nutrition, taste and colour. Contour plots generated from sensory data of the products were overlaid to determine the optimum ratios of the components of the cocktail beverage. The optimised product consisted of 50-52% Carrot, 18-20% Pineapple and 28-30% Mango. Analysis of the beverage revealed 223 mg/100ml Potassium, 3.92 mg/100ml Pro-vitamin A (Beta carotene) and 43 mg/100ml vitamin C. After 8 weeks of storage 71% Pro-vitamin A was retained even under relatively higher doses (2.5kGy) of gamma radiation. The microbial quality of the beverage was good under all conditions.

0029 Effect of irradiation on shelf - life and quality characteristics of two (2) solanum species
Riverson, N. M. XE "Riverson, N. M."  (M.Phil)

Garden eggs (solanum spp) are grown as a commercial crop for domestic consumption and also for export. In addition to major production challenges such as limited shelf-life, poor post-harvest handling and the lack of quality standards, garden eggs are prone to infection by pest and diseases at all stages of growth. This theses provides information on the effect of gamma radiation doses (1 - 3kGy) on the shelf life and some quality characteristics of three varieties of garden eggs Solanum aethiopicum GH 8772 and aethiopicum GH 8773, and aethiopicum torvum under two packaging conditions. Quality attributes of colour, firmness, and wrinkleness were assessed using a nine-point hedonic scale in decreasing order of acceptability. The numbers of rotten fruits were recorded on weekly basis throughout the storage period of four weeks. The physiochemical properties (moisture content, weight loss and pH) were determined by standard methods. The microbiological quality was assessed by estimating the population of aerobic mesophiles and yeast and moulds using the methods of serial dilution and pour plating. The three varieties of garden eggs used in the study responded differently to gamma radiation and storage. Salannum torvum showed discolouration and subsequent fungal spoilage in the first week of storage after irradiation under both unpackaged and packaged conditions; howbeit the unirradiated had acceptable scores (>4.33) in terms of colour, firmness, and wrinkleness throughout the storage period. At the end of the storage period samples of S. torvum had lower values in terms of moisture (26.78%), weight loss (9.3 g) and pH (2.9) under unpackaged condition, but high vitamin C content of 14.83 mg/100g. Samples S. torvum under packaged conditions had higher values in terms of colour, firmness, and wrinkleness as well as pH and vitamin C. However the effect of packaging was not significant with respect to the quality attributes and physiochemical properties. Decline in colour, firmness and wrinkleness in GH 8772 and GH 8773 were dependent on storage rather than gamma radiation. With respect to colour, 3 kGy extended shelf - life up to the second week of storage in GH8772 and up to the third week of storage in GH 8773 under unpackage condition. Also, with regards to wrinkleness,whereas only 3 kGy extended shelf - life up to third week of storage in GH 8772 under packaged condition, dose 1 - 3 kGy extended shelf - life up to third week of storage in GH 8773. Higher counts of rotting fruits were observed in the two varieties under packaged condition. The effect of radiation on moisture content and weight loss in the two varieties was not definite. Radiation dose of 3 kGy significantly reduced the population of aerobic mesophiles and yeast and moulds in two varieties (GH8772 and GH 8773) during storage under the two packaging conditions. Radiation dose of 3 kGy significantly extended shelf - life of GH8772 and GH8773 varieties in terms of colour and wrinkleness. Only 3 kGy significantly reduced counts of aerobic mesophiles and yeast and moulds. Storage at room temperature significantly affected the shelf - life by hastening ripening and senescence. Packaging did not significantly extended the shelf - life of the three varieties of garden eggs.

0030 Effect of NPK fertiliser on growth, flowering and yield of fonio (Digitaria exilis) in a coastal agro-ecological environment of Ghana
Amekli, Y. XE "Amekli, Y."  (M.Phil)

Fonio (Digitaria spp) is neglected and underutilised crop traditionally grown in the Sahelian savannah agro-ecological zone of Ghana for its grain which is rich in crude protein, fibre and has medicinal properties. Decline in the production of the crop is attributed to poor agronomic and yield characteristics and changing agro-climatic conditions as a result of clobal warming which has rendered traditional growing areas too dry to surport cultivation of the crop. There is the need to explore the possibility of growing the crop in new agro-ecologies to sustain the production. The study was therefore conducted in Kwabenya-Atomic area which is located in the coastal savannah agro-ecological zone of Ghana, to evaluate the adaptability of three fonio landraces (Yadema, Nomber and Nvoni) to the coastal zone, their growth and response to NPK 15:15:15 fertiliser treatment, apparent fertiliser nitrogen recovery (AFNR) as well as presence basic elements in the grains. Field experiments were conducted in 2012 during the major cropping season, using three fonio landraces grown at a planting distance of 0.05m x 0.45m. The experiment design used was the split plot in three replicates. Plants were sampled every two weeks throughout the growing season. Grain yield (GY) and its associated apparent fertiliser nitrogen recovery were significantly different (Pd" 0.05) among the fonio landraces during the cropping season with the landrace Nvoni producing the highest grain yield of 96 kg ha-1 at NPK fertiliser rate of 60 kg ha-1 and with a AFNR of 33.1%. The study also establised a positive correlation between biomass accumulation and grain yield. The efficiency of grain production per unit of fertiliser nitrogen (FN) increased, but at a diminishing rate with each traditional unit of FN. Additionally, ten essentials mineral elements (Na,Mg, K, Ca, I, CI, Cu, AI, Mn, and V) were detected among the grain of the three fonio landrace using Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA).

0031 Effect of irradiation on the shelf life and nutritional quality of tomato (Solanum Lycopersicon L.) powder
Atuobi-Yeboah, A. A. XE "Atuobi-Yeboah, A. A."  (M.Phil)

Tomato (Solanum lycoersicon L.) is a major horticultural crop with an estimated global production of over 153 million metric tons. It is the most important fruit vegetable and the second most widely cultivated crop in the world after potato, with a total production of about 141 million tons. In 2009, the average total yield in Ghana was 7.5 Mt ha-1 compared to the achievable yield of 15.0 Mt ha-1. The tomato industry in Ghana for the past decade has been bedevilled by a myriad of problems of which post-havest losses range between 30% and 70% in the major season of production, hence a study was conducted into the preservation of S. lycoersicon L. through drying and packaging to reduce post-havest losses. Two drying methods comprising of solar and freeze drying were employed for three varieties of tomato which are cultivated locally. The methods were compared to determine the more efficient for the three varieties used for the study and the impact of drying and radiation on some physio-chemical properties, microbial load as well as shelf-life of the samples. Evaluation of the packaging material for the dried samples was also carried out. The samples were exposed to gamma radiation at 0 kGy, 1 kGy, 2kGy, 3 kGy. The parameters determined included moisture content, pH, titratable acidity; total soluble solids carotenoids, lycopene, lutein and beta carotene. Microbial analysis carried out included total aerobic mesophilic bacteria count, total coliform count and moulds and yeast using standard methods. Data were analysed using ANOVA. Storage had significant effect (p E F H K N Y Z ] l u è é ê ìÜ̹ªšŠzjzšzZG40hÿQ%h‹khÿQB*CJOJQJaJph" %h‹kh‹kB*CJOJQJaJph" hÃDB*CJOJQJaJph" hQB*CJOJQJaJph" h+Y¶B*CJOJQJaJph" h
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